John Adams

Second President of the United States — the Founding Father most associated with constitutional law, independence advocacy, and the intellectual framework of the American founding.

Adams's constitutional contribution: more than any other Founder, Adams thought systematically about constitutional architecture — separation of powers, the necessity of an independent judiciary, the danger of both monarchical and democratic excess. A Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States codified these views. His one-term presidency (1797-1801) is notable for avoiding war with France despite intense political pressure — a decision that may have saved the republic. The Adams-Jefferson friendship, rupture, and reconciliation (both died July 4, 1826, the 50th anniversary of independence) is the most symbolically complete story in American political history.